学习改变命运读后感
In recent years， many newspapers and magazines focus on the activities of film stars， pop singers and some other famous men and women. Reporters disguise their identities， infiltrate the subject's business and family， or even bug and wiretap them——to get the news by whatever means are necessary. It is not difficult to explain the reason for their surprising amount of interest in famous people's lives. They are in the spotlight， renowned or notorious， they are the topic of ordinary people who like to know everything about them. To satisfy their curiosity， or “the people's right to know”， journalists often find it their duty to report their activities. More over， what matters to a newspaper or a magazine is the number of readers. A large readership means the rise in the circulation of their publications， hence a huge profit. Since film stars and pop singers are newsworthy figures， and their stories draws far more attention than those of other people， it is natural that the press tries to attract them to buy their magazines by featuring private lives of famous people. How ever， those exposed people can be severely injured by such press attention. Sensational stories about their private lives cause great unhappiness to them. To escape reporters， they can't even lead a normal life. Sometimes their lives will be in danger. For example， Princess Diana died in a car accident as she attempted to escape photographers in a chase through Paris. Famous people are also citizens. They have the right to keep their own privacy like ordinary people——the basic right which should be respected， protected and guaranteed by our laws in whatever circumstances.
巴黎圣母院英语读后感
我认为它的主题是在歌颂李、杨两人之间真挚的爱情。
但……我不相信现实中君王会有这样深情的情爱……花心的萝卜多得是，专情的君主很难得
程序员怎样学数学
First: programmers don't think they need to know math. I hear that so often; I hardly know anyone who disagrees. Even programmers who were math majors tell me they don't really use math all that much! They say it's better to know about design patterns, object-oriented methodologies, software tools, interface design, stuff like that. 首先:程序员不认为他们需要了解数学.我常常听到这样的话;我不知道还有没有不同意的.甚至于以前是主修数学的程序员也告诉我他们真的不是常常使用到数学!他们说更重要的是要去了解设计模式,面向对象原理,软件工具,界面设计,以及一些其他类似的东西. And you know what? They're absolutely right. You can be a good, solid, professional programmer without knowing much math. 你了解吗?他们完全正确.你不需要了解很多数学你就能做个很棒,很专业的程序员. But hey, you don't really need to know how to program, either. Let's face it: there are a lot of professional programmers out there who realize they're not very good at it, and they still find ways to contribute. 但是呢,同时你也不是真的需要知道如何来编程.我们要面对的是:有很多专业的程序员,他们认识到他们不是非常擅长数学,但他们还是寻找方法去提升. If you're suddenly feeling out of your depth, and everyone appears to be running circles around you, what are your options? Well, you might discover you're good at project management, or people management, or UI design, or technical writing, or system administration, any number of other important things that programmers aren't necessarily any good at. You'll start filling those niches (because there's always more work to do), and as soon as you find something you're good at, you'll probably migrate towards doing it full-time. 如果你突然觉得自己好烂,周围的人都远远的超过你,你会怎么想呢?好,你可能会发现自己善于项目管理,或人事管理,或界面设计,或技术写作,或系统管理,还有许多其他程序员不必去精通的.你会开始堆积那些想法(因为工作永远干不完),当你发现一些你能掌握的东西时,你很可能会转移去全职的做这个工作. In fact, I don't think you need to know anything, as long as you can stay alive somehow. 实际上,我认为有些东西你不需要了解,当前你还能够赖以生存的话. So they're right: you don't need to know math, and you can get by for your entire life just fine withoutit. 所以他们是对的:你不需要了解数学,并且没有数学你也能过的很好. But a few things I've learned recently might surprise you: 但是最近我学到一些东西可能会让你也感到惊喜:\ They teach math all wrong in school. Way, WAY wrong. If you teach yourself math the right way, you'll learn faster, remember it longer, and it'll be much more valuable to you as a programmer. 学校里教数学的方式都错了.仅仅是教学的方法错了,不是教数学本身错.如果你以正确的方式学习数学的话,你会学的更快,记住这点,对你,作为一个程序员来说很有价值.\ Knowing even a little of the right kinds of math can enable you do write some pretty interesting programs that would otherwise be too hard. In other words, math is something you can pick up a little at a time, whenever you have free time. 哪怕了解一点点相关的数学知识,就能让你写出可爱有趣的程序,否则会有些小难度.换句话讲,数学是可以慢慢学的,只要你有时间.\ Nobody knows all of math, not even the best mathematicians. The field is constantly expanding, as people invent new formalisms to solve their own problems. And with any given math problem, just like in programming, there's more than one way to do it. You can pick the one you like best. 没人能了解所有的数学,就是最棒的数学家也不是.当人们发明新的形式去解决自己的问题时,数学领域就不断的扩展.一些给出的数学问题,也正如编程,不止一种方法可以去解决他.你可以挑个你最喜欢的方式.\ Math is... ummm, please don't tell anyone I said this; I'll never get invited to another party as long as I live. But math, well... I'd better whisper this, so listen up: (it's actually kinda fun.) 数学是......嗯,请别告诉别人我说过这个哈;当然我也不指望谁能邀请我参加这样的派对,在我还活着的时候.但是,数学其实就是......我还是小声的说吧,听好了:(她其实就是一种乐趣啦!) The Math You Learned (And Forgot) 你学到的数学(和你忘了的数学) Here's the math I learned in school, as far as I can remember: 这儿是我能记得的在学校学到的数学: Grade School: Numbers, Counting, Arithmetic, Pre-Algebra (story problems) 初中:数,数数,算术知识,初级代数(带问题的小故事) High School: Algebra, Geometry, Advanced Algebra, Trigonometry, Pre-Calculus (conics and limits) 高中:代数,几何,高等代数,三角学,微积分先修课 (二次曲线论和极限) College: Differential and Integral Calculus, Differential Equations, Linear Algebra, Probability and Statistics, Discrete Math 大学:微积分,微分公式,线性代数,概率和统计,离散数学 How'd they come up with that particular list for high school, anyway? It's more or less the same courses in most U.S. high schools. I think it's very similar in other countries, too, except that their students have finished the list by the time they're nine years old. (Americans really kick butt at monster-truck competitions, though, so it's not a total loss.) 上面那个关于高中数学课程单子上所列的,怎么来着?美国高中几乎都是这样的课程设置.我认为其他国家也会很相似的,除了那些在9岁之前就掌握了这些课程的学生.(美国小孩同时却在热衷于玩魔鬼卡车竞赛,虽然如此,整个来说也算不上什么大损失.) Algebra? Sure. No question. You need that. And a basic understanding of Cartesian geometry, too. Those are useful, and you can learn everything you need to know in a few months, give or take. But the rest of them? I think an introduction to the basics might be useful, but spending a whole semester or year on them seems ridiculous. 代数?是的.没问题.你需要代数.和一些理解解析几何的知识.那些很有用,并且在以后几个月里,你能学到一切你想要的,十拿九稳的.剩下的呢?我认为一个基本的介绍可能会有用,但是在这上面花整个学期或一年就显得很荒谬了. I'm guessing the list was designed to prepare students for science and engineering professions. The math courses they teach in and high school don't help ready you for a career in programming, and the simple fact is that the number of programming jobs is rapidly outpacing the demand for all other engineering roles. 我现在意识到那个书单列表原是设计来准备给那些以后要当科学家和工程师的学生的.他们在高中里所教的数学课程并不是为你的编程生涯做准备的,简单的事实是,多数的编程工作所需要的数学知识相比其他作为工程师角色的人所需要的数学增长的更快. And even if you're planning on being a scientist or an engineer, I've found it's much easier to learn and appreciate geometry and trig after you understand what exactly math is — where it came from, where it's going, what it's for. No need to dive right into memorizing geometric proofs and trigonometric identities. But that's exactly what high schools have you do. 即使你打算当一名科学家或者一名工程师,在你理解了什么是数学之后-- 数学它如何而来,如何而去,为何而生,我发现这更加容易去学习和欣赏几何学和三角学.不必去专研记住几何上的证明和三角恒等式,虽然那确实是高中学校要求你必须去做的. So the list's no good anymore. Schools are teaching us the wrong math, and they're teaching it the wrong way. It's no wonder programmers think they don't need any math: most of the math we learned isn't helping us. 所以这样的书单列表不再有什么用了.学校教给我们的不是最合适的数学,并且方式也不对.不奇怪程序员认为他们不再需要数学:我们学的大部分数学知识对我们的工作没什么大的帮助. The Math They Didn't Teach You 他们没有教给你的那部分数学 The math computer scientists use regularly, in real life, has very little overlap with the list above. For onething, most of the math you learn in grade school and high school is continuous: that is, math on the real numbers. For computer scientists, 95% or more of the interesting math is discrete: i.e., math on the integers. 在现实中,计算机科学家经常使用的数学,跟上面所列的数学仅有很小的重叠. 举个例子,你在中学里学的大部分数学是连续性的:也就是说,那是作为实数的数学.而对于计算机科学家来说,他们所感兴趣的95%也许更多的是离散性的:比如,关于整数的数学. I'm going to talk in a future blog about some key differences between computer science, software engineering, programming, hacking, and other oft-confused disciplines. I got the basic framework for these (upcoming) insights in no small part from Richard Gabriel's Patterns Of Software, so if you absolutely can't wait, go read that. It's a good book. 我打算在以后的博客中再谈一些有关计算机科学,软件工程,编程,搞些有趣的东东,和其他常常令人犯晕的训练.我已经从Richard Gabriel的软件的模式这本书中洞察到一个无关巨细的基本框架.如果你明显的等不下去的话,去读吧.是本不错的书. For now, though, don't let the term computer scientist worry you. It sounds intimidating, but math isn't the exclusive purview of computer scientists; you can learn it all by yourself as a closet hacker, and be just as good (or better) at it than they are. Your background as a programmer will help keep you focused on the practical side of things. 到现在为止,不要让计算机科学家这个词困扰到你.它听上去很可怕,其实数学不是计算机科学家所独有的领域,你也能作为一个黑客自学它,并且能做的和他们一样棒.你作为一个程序员的背景将会帮助你保持只关注那些有实践性的部分. The math we use for modeling computational problems is, by and large, math on discrete integers. Thisis a generalization. If you're with me on today's blog, you'll be studying a little more math from now on than you were planning to before today, and you'll discover places where the generalization isn't true. But by then, a short time from now, you'll be confident enough to ignore all this and teach yourself math the way you want to learn it. 我们用来建立计算模型的,大体上是离散数学.这是普遍的做法.如果正好今天你在看这篇博客,从现在起你正了解到更多的数学,并且你会认识到那样的普遍做法是不对的.从现在开始,你将有信心认为可以忽略这些,并以你想要的方式自学. For programmers, the most useful branch of discrete math is probability theory. It's the first thing they should teach you after arithmetic, in grade school. What's probability theory, you ask? Why, it's counting. How many ways are there to make a Full House in poker? Or a Royal Flush? Whenever you think ofa question that starts with how many ways... or what are the odds..., it's a probability question. And as it happens (what are the odds?), it all just turns out to be simple counting. It starts with flipping acoin and goes from there. It's definitely the first thing they should teach you in grade school after you learn Basic Calculator Usage. 对程序员来说,最有效的离散数学的分支是概率理论.这是你在学校学完基本算术后的紧接着的课.你会问,什么是概率理论呢?你就数啊,看有多少次出现满堂彩?或者有多次是同花顺. 不管你思考什么问题如果是以多少种途径...或有多大几率的...,那就是离散问题.当他发生时,都转化成简单的计数.抛个硬币看看...? 毫无疑问在他们教你基本的计算用法后他们会教你概率理论. I still have my discrete math textbook from college. It's a bit heavyweight for a third-grader (maybe), but it does cover a lot of the math we use in everyday computer science and computer engineering. 我还保存着大学里的离散数学课本.可能他只占了三分之一的课程,但是它却涵盖了我们几乎每天计算机编程工作大部分所用到的数学. Oddly enough, my professor didn't tell me what it was for. Or I didn't hear. Or something. So I didn't pay very close attention: just enough to pass the course and forget this hateful topic forever, because I didn't think it had anything to do with programming. That happened in quite a few of my comp sci courses in college, maybe as many as 25% of them. Poor me! I had to figure out what was important on my own, later, the hard way. 也真是够奇怪的,我的教授从没告诉我数学是用来干吗的.或者我也从来没有听说过.种种原因吧.所以我也从没有给以足够的注意:只是考试及格然后把他们都忘光,因为我不认为她还和编程有啥关系.事情变化是我在大学学完一些计算机科学的课程之后,也许是25%的课程.可怜啊!我必须弄明白什么对于自己来说是最重要的,然后再是向深度发展. I think it would be nice if every math course spent a full week just introducing you to the subject, in themost fun way possible, so you know why the heck you're learning it. Heck, that's probably true for every course. 我想,如果每门数学课都花上整整一周的时间,而只是介绍让你如何入门的话,那将非常不错,这是最有意思的一种假设,那么你知道了你正学习的对象是哪种怪物了.怪物,大概对每一门课都合适. Aside from probability and discrete math, there are a few other branches of mathematics that are potentially quite useful to programmers, and they usually don't teach them in school, unless you're a math minor. This list includes: 除了概率和离散数学外,还有不少其他的数学分支,可能对程序员相当的有用,学校通常不会教你的,除非你的辅修科目是数学.这些数目列表包括:\ Statistics, some of which is covered in my discrete math book, but it's really a discipline of its own. A pretty important one, too, but hopefully it needs no introduction. 统计学,其中一些包括在我的离散数学课里,她的某些训练只限于她自身.自然也是相当重要的,但想学的话不需要什么特别的入门. Algebra and Linear Algebra (i.e., matrices). They should teach Linear Algebra immediately after algebra. It's pretty easy, and it's amazingly useful in all sorts of domains, including machine learning. 代数和线性代数(比如,矩阵).他们会在教完代数后立即教线性代数.这也简单,这但相当多的领域非常有用,包括机器学习. Mathematical Logic. I have a really cool totally unreadable book on the subject by Stephen Kleene, the inventor of the Kleene closure and, as far as I know, Kleenex. Don't read that one. I swear I've tried 20 times, and never made it past chapter 2. If anyone has a recommendation for a better introduction to this field, please post a comment. It's obviously important stuff, though. 数理逻辑.我有相当完整的关于这门学科的书没有读,是Stephen Kleene写的,克林闭包的发明者,我所知道的还有就是Kleenex.这个就不要读了.我发誓我已经尝试了不下20次,却从没有读完第二章.如果哪位牛掰有什么更好的入门建议的话可以给我推荐.虽然,这明显是非常重要的一部分.\ Information Theory and Kolmogorov Complexity. Weird, eh? I bet none of your high schools taught either of those. They're both pretty new. Information theory is (veeery roughly) about data compression, and Kolmogorov Complexity is (also roughly) about algorithmic complexity. I.e., how small you can you make it, how long will it take, how elegant can the program or data structure be, things like that. They're both fun, interesting and useful. 信息理论和柯尔莫戈洛夫复杂性理论.真不可思议,不是么?我敢打赌没哪个高中会教你其中任何一门课程.她们都是新兴的学科.信息理论是(相当相当相当相当难懂)关于数据压缩,柯尔莫戈洛夫复杂性理论是(同样非常难懂)关于算法复杂度的.也就是说,你要把它压缩的尽量小,你所要花费的时间也就变的越长,同样的,程序或数据结构要变得多优雅也有同样的代价.他们都很有趣,也很有用.\ There are others, of course, and some of the fields overlap. But it just goes to show: the math that you'll find useful is pretty different from the math your school thought would be useful. 当然,也有其他的一些因素,某些领域是重复的.也拿来说说吧:你所发现有用的那部分数学,不同于那些你在学校里认为有用的数学. What about calculus? Everyone teaches it, so it must be important, right? 那微积分呢?每个人都学它,所以它也一定是重要的,不对吗?
求“The Role of English in the 21st Century”翻译求大神帮助
Two factors drive this global marketplace. First, many manufactured products have one or more foreign components. Ford cars and IBM computers are just two examples of this. Second, more than half of all imports and exports, which governments label foreign trade, are transacted between domestic companies and their foreign affiliates. The increasing globalization of the marketplace is forcing companies to pay more attention to international developments. Domestic firms are adjusting their structures and methods of operation to fit a broader and rapidly changing economic environment. They are increasing their geographic outreach because more of their suppliers and customers are located on various continents. For example, last year Johnson and Johnson sold more products outside the United States than in the United States. Hewlett Packard, like many companies, lost money when the Asian economy collapsed. Joint ventures are no longer just theoretical possibilities. Mergers and acquisitions, like Chrysler\\\/Daimler Benz and MCI and British Telecom, increasingly cross national boundaries. This trend is expected to continue into the next millennium. This internationalization is illustrated in three ways. First, companies change their basic goals to conform to a global marketplace. Second, they adapt their products to local markets. But most importantly, they do not set up international bureaucracies; instead, they hire foreign nationals who understand the local markets. Why discuss economics with the English language? Because the English language is closely associated with this economic modernization and industrial development. Information is sent and received at increasing speed. The competitive demands of governments, industries, and corporations, both national and multinational, for technological progress require an understanding of the language of that technology English. The global spread of English over the last 40 years is remarkable. It is unprecedented in several ways: by the increasing number of users of the language; by its depth of penetration into societies; by its range of functions. Worldwide over 1.4 billion people live in countries where English has official status. One out of five of the world's population speaks English with some degree of competence. And by 2000 one in five over one billion people will also be learning English. Over 70% of the world's scientists read English. About 85% of the world's mail is written in English. And 90% of all information in the world's electronic retrieval systems is stored in English. By 2010, the number of people who speak English as a second or foreign language will exceed the number of native speakers. This trend will certainly affect the language. English is used for more purposes than ever before. Vocabularies, grammatical forms, and ways of speaking and writing have emerged influenced by technological and scientific developments, economics and management, literature and entertainment genres. What began some 1,500 years ago as a rude language, originally spoken by obscure Germanic tribes who invaded England,now encompasses the globe. When Mexican pilots land their airplanes in France, they and the ground controllers use English. When German physicists want to alert the international scientific community to new discoveries, they first publish their findings in English. When Japanese executives conduct business with Scandinavian entrepreneurs, they negotiate in English. When pop singers write their songs, they often use lyrics or phrases in English. When demonstrators want to alert the world to their problems, they display signs in English. Three factors continue to contribute to this spread of English: English usage in science, technology and commerce; the ability to incorporate vocabulary from other languages; and the acceptability of various English dialects. In science, English replaced German after World War II. With this technical and scientific dominance came the beginning of overall linguistic dominance, first in Europe and then globally. Today, the information age has replaced the industrial age and has compressed time and distance. This is transforming world economies from industrial production to information-based goods and services. Ignoring geography and borders, the information revolution is redefining our world. In less than 20 years, information processing, once limited to the printed word, has given way to computers and the Internet. Computer-mediated communication is closing the gap between spoken and written English. It encourages more informal conversational language and a tolerance for diversity and individual style, and has resulted in Internet English replacing the authority of language institutes and practices. English, like many languages, uses a phonetic alphabet and fairly basic syntax. But most importantly, it has a large and extensive vocabulary, of which about 80% is foreign. Therefore, it has cognates from virtually every language in Europe and has borrowed and continues to borrow words from Spanish and French, Hebrew and Arabic, Hindi-Urdu and Bengali, Malay and Chinese, as well as languages from West Africa and Polynesia. This language characteristic makes it unique in history. Finally, no English language central authority guards the purity of the language, therefore, many dialects have developed: American, British, Canadian, Indian, and Australian, to name a few. There is no standard pronunciation. But within this diversity is a unity of grammar and one set of core vocabulary. Thus, each country that speaks the language can inject aspects of its own culture into the usage and vocabulary. However, the future is unpredictable. As David Crystal (1997) commented, there has never been a language so widely spread or spoken by so many people as English. So, there are no precedents to help us predict what happens to a language when it achieves genuine world status. The world is in transition, and the English language will take new forms. The language and how it is used will change, reflecting patterns of contact with other languages and the changing communication needs of people. English is divesting itself of its political and cultural connotations as more people realize that English is not the property of only a few countries. Instead, it is a vehicle that is used globally and will lead to more opportunities. It belongs to whoever uses it for whatever purpose or need. One question that arises about the future role of the English language is whether a single world standard English will develop. This could result in a supranational variety that all people would have to learn. The widespread use of English as a language of wider communication will continue to exert pressure toward global uniformity. This could result in declining standards, language changes, and the loss of geolinguistic diversity. On the other hand, because English is the vehicle for international communication and because it forms the basis for constructing cultural identities, many local varieties could instead develop. This trend may lead to fragmentation of the language and threaten the role of English as a lingua franca. However, there have always been major differences between varieties of English. There is no reason to believe that any one other language will appear within the next 50 years to replace English. However, it is possible that English will not keep its monopoly in the 21st century. Rather, a small number of languages may form an oligopoly each with a special area of influence. For example, Spanish is rising because of expanding trade and the increase of the Latino population in the United States. This could create a bilingual English-Spanish region. A language shift, in which individuals change their linguistic allegiances, is another possibility. These shifts are slow and difficult to predict. But within the next 50 years, substantial language shifts could occur as economic development affects more countries. Because of these shifts in allegiance, more languages may disappear. Those remaining will rapidly get more native speakers. This includes English. Internal migration and urbanization may restructure areas, thereby creating communities where English becomes the language of interethnic communication neutral language. Universities using English as the medium of instruction will expand and rapidly create a generation of middle-class professionals. Economic development will only increase the middle class, a group that is more likely to learn and use English in jobs. While languages such as English, German, and French have been international languages because of their governments' political powers, this is less likely to be the case in the 21st century where economics and demographics will have more influence on languages. English has been an international language for only 50 years. If the pattern follows the previous language trends, we still have about 100 years before a new language dominates the world. However, this does not mean that English is replacing or will replace other languages as many fear. Instead, it may supplement or co-exist with languages by allowing strangers to communicate across linguistic boundaries. It may become one tool that opens windows to the world, unlocks doors to opportunities, and expands our minds to new ideas. 世界在社会、经济、和人口统计学转变的各种不同阶段中。
经济上地而且政治地，世界在过去几年内已经更快速改变超过自从 1945 以后随时. 初现的全球经济是既竞争的且相互依赖的。
它在世界的大多数地方中反映现代沟通和生产技术的有效。
因此, 我们需要在 21 世纪内关心英文语言的未来吗? 依照经济学者 (1996) 二个因素驾驶这个全球的市场。
首先，许多制造品有一或更多的外国成份。
福特汽车和 IBM 计算机只是这二个例子。
其次, 非常一半输入而且输出, 哪一个政府标签国际贸易, 在国内的公司和他们的外国加入者之间被办理。
市场的逐渐增加全球化正在强迫公司对国际的发展给予较多的注意。
国内的公司正在调整他们的操作的结构和方法适合一比较宽广的而且快速地变更经济的环境。
因为他们的供应者的更多和客户位于各种不同的大陆之上，所以他们正在增加他们的地理外展。
举例来说，去年詹森和詹森在美国以外卖了较多的产品超过在美国 合资是不再正直的理论上的可能性。
合并和获得, 像克莱斯勒\\\/戴姆勒宾士汽车和英国电讯, 逐渐地越过国界。
这一个趋势被期望进入下个一千年之内继续。
这国际化在三个方法中被举例。
首先，公司改变他们的基本目标遵照一全球的 市场。
其次，他们使他们的产品配合当地的市场。
但是最重要地，他们不建立国际的官僚; 相反的，他们雇请了解当地的市场的外国的国民 为什么与英文语言讨论经济学? 因为英文语言接近地与这经济的现代化和工业的发展有关。
数据被送而且被以逐渐增加的速度收到。
政府、工业和公司的竞争要求，国民和跨国公司,为科技的进步需要那技术的语言的理解英语。
在过去 40 年上的英语的全球传布是显着的。
它在某些方面是空前的: 被语言的使用者的逐渐增加数字; 被它的渗透的深度进入社会之内; 被它的功能的范围。
在全世界超过十四亿个人住在英语有官方的状态的国家。
五中的一世界的 人口用某一程度的胜任说英语。
而且二千零一在五个超过十亿个人中也将会学习英语。
超过 70% 的世界\\\\'s 科学家读英语。
大约 85% 的世界邮件以英语写成。
而且在世界上的 90% 所有的数据电子的取回系统被以英语储存。
2010 之前，当做秒或者外国语说英语的人数将会超过说母语者的数字。
这一个趋势将会无疑地影响语言 英语作为远比以往要多的目的。
说而且写的字汇，文法的表格和方法已经出现被科技而科学发展、经济学和管理、文学和娱乐类型影响。
什么当一种粗鲁无礼的语言,本来被侵入了英国的微暗德国的种族讲, 现在包含地球， 1,500 年前开始 当墨西哥的飞行员以法国、他们和土地的控制器使用英国人登陆他们的飞机的时候。
当德国物理学者想要提醒对新的发现国际的科学社区的时候，他们首先以英语出版他们的调查结果。
当日本主管和北欧企业家处理生意的时候，他们以英语商议。
当取出歌手写他们的歌的时候，他们时常以英语使用抒情诗或片语。
当示范者想要提醒的时候 对他们的问题的世界, 他们以英语显示告示。
三个因素继续成为英语的这传布的因素: 科学、技术和商业的英文用法; 能力合并来自其他的语言的字汇; 而且各种不同英文方言的可接受。
在科学中，英语代替了第二次世界大战后的德语。
与这个技术上而科学的支配来了全部语言学支配的开始, 在欧洲的第一然后全球性地。
今天，数据年龄已经代替工业的年龄而且已经压缩时间和距离。
这正在转换从工业的生产到以数据为基础的货物和服务的世界经济。
不理睬地理学和边缘,资讯革命正在重新定义我们的世界。
在少于 20 年中, 数据处理, 一旦限制在印刷的字, 已经给 到计算机和英特网的路。
计算机斡旋的沟通是关闭那缝隙在口语的之间和书面的英语。
它为不同和个体风格鼓励更非正式的会话语言和宽容, 而且已经造成更换语言的权威学会和练习的英特网英语。
英语,喜欢许多语言, 使用一个语言的字母和非常基本的语法。
但是最重要地，它有一个大而广泛的字汇,哪些大约 80% 是外国的。
因此, 它有同族的从事实上每种语言在欧洲而且已经借而且继续借来自西班牙语和法国人、希伯来人和阿拉伯语的话, 北印度语和孟加拉人、马来和华语、连同来自非洲西部和玻里尼西亚的语言。
这语言特性在历史中使它独特 最后，没有英文语言中央的权威保卫语言的纯净,因此,许多方言已经发展:美国、英国、以及加拿大、印度、和澳洲的, 命名一些。
没有标准的发音。
但是在这不同里面是文法和一组核心字汇的个体。
因此, 说语言能注射它自己文化的方面进入用法和字汇的每个国家。
然而，未来是不可预知的。
当大卫水晶 (1997) 批评了, 如此广泛不曾有一种语言传布或被作为英语的如此许多人讲。
因此, 没有先例要帮助我们预测发生在一种语言上什么事当它达成真正的世界状态的时候。
世界在转变中，而且英文语言将会拿新的表格。
语言和它如何被用将会改变 用其他的语言和人的变更沟通需要反映连络的式样。
当较多的人了解英国人不是只有一些国家的特性的时候，英语正在它的政治上而文化含蓄剥除它本身。
相反的，它是一辆被全球性地用的车辆而且将会导致较多的机会。
它属于任何人使用它作为每个目的哪一或需要。
一个发生有关英文语言的将来角色的事的疑问是否世界 这可以造成超国家的多样性所有的人会必须获悉。
作为一种较宽的沟通的语言英语的广大使用将会继续施加向全球的同样压力。
这可以造成倾斜的标准，语言变化不同的损失。
另一方面，因为英语是国际的沟通车辆而且因为它形成基础 构造文化认同感,许多当地的多样性可以改为发展。
这一个趋势可能导致语言的分裂而且威胁作为舌的英语的角色。
然而，已经总是有在英语的多样性之间的主要不同。
没有理由要相信任何的其他语言将会在未来的 50 年之内出现代替英语。
然而是可能的是，英国人在 21 世纪内将不保存它的垅断。
然而，少数的语言可能形成对一个影响力的特别区域感到每个的一个求过于供的市场情况。
举例来说，西班牙语正在因为在美国扩张贸易和拉丁美洲人的增加人口升起。
这可以产生一个双语的英西班牙人区域 个体改变他们的语言学忠贞的语言变化,是另外的一种可能性。
这些变化慢而困难预测。
但是在未来的 50 年之内，可观的语言变化可以发生如经济的发展 影响较多的国家。
因为忠贞的这些变化，较多的语言可能消失。
正在保持的人们将会快速地争取较多的说母语者。
这包括英语。
内在的移民和都市化可能更改结构区域,藉此创造英语变成 沟通梐的语言中立的语言的社区 以英语作为指导的媒体的大学将会扩张而且快速地产生中产阶级专业人士的世代。
经济的发展只将会增加中产阶级，一个更可能在工作中学习而且使用英语的团体 因为他们政府的政治权力语言，像是英语，德语和法语已经是国际的语言，不过这比较不有可能在 21 世纪内是情形哪里经济学和人口统计学的将会对语言有较多的影响力。
英国人已经是一种国际的语言有只有 50 年之久。
如果式样跟随早先的语言趋势, 我们在一种新的语言前大约 100 年仍然有支配世界。
然而，这不意指英国人正在更换或者将会代替其他的语言和恐惧一样多的相反的，它可能补充，否则共藉由让陌生人以语言存在整个语言学边界沟通。
它可能变成一个对世界开放窗户,开启对机会的门, 而且把我们的思想扩张到的工具
文化决定论、我族中心主义和文化中心论有什么区别
区别在于我族中心主义是从自己种族的观点出发看待一切事物，而另外两个则是从文化的角度文化中心论和文化决定论的区别在于文化中心论是从本民族文化的角度出发思考问题，而文化决定论是将广义的文化作为决定一切事物的依据，这种文化可以是本民族的，也可以是其他民族的文化决定论（Cultural Determinism）一种认为个体完全由他所属文化来决定的观点。
文化是一个民族的生活方式，它由思想和行为的习惯模式所组成，包括价值、信仰、行为规范、政治组织、经济活动等。
由于所有这些习惯模式是通过学习而非生物习惯模式的过程就是个体受限其所属文化的过程。
约从19世纪中叶以来，文化这个词已是人类学词汇的一个重要部分，其用法在维多利亚时代的人类学家E.B.泰勒和L . H.摩尔根等人的著述中具有某种特性。
例如，泰勒于1871 年撰文认为，按照一般的见解。
文化“是一种复杂的整体，包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律、习惯以及作为社会成员的人所获得的任何其他能力和习性”。
在生物进化的自然进程引导下，人类成功地创造和积累了对客观世界来说具有自身存在的独特价值的精神产品，即文化。
而且，人类无不隶属和依赖于自己的这一创造。
R.本尼迪克特在《文化模式》一书中曾断言：儿童通过观察指导他们人生过程的某种文化，感知其中的可能性与不可能性，而成为该文化的一部分。
这种对于人类发展（尤指个体发展）的决定论观念表明，尽管人们自以为是个体自己在挑选一栋住房、一辆汽车、一件服饰，乃至一顿晚餐，然而实际上他们的选择纯粹取决于他们的文化。
在心理学领域，有些社会-文化学派的学者指出，文化的这种潜在的巨大的力量在一个婴儿刚刚降生于世起就开始发生作用，直到孩子长到5岁时，这一影响力达到高峰在于 是，儿童除了接受由他的文化所教授的那种行为方式以外，别无任何其他选择，其最终结果，便是儿童的适应方式逐步趋于定型，并将伴随其一生。
E .哈奇指出，文化从下述三个方面决定了人类的行为：（1）人类通过学习获得了那些指导和确定思想与行为的模式。
例如，我们有时听到这样的忠告，“按你自己的想法去做”，或“走自己的路，让别人去说”，等等。
在哈奇看来，这些忠告只是貌似有理，因为所有的思想和行为都仿效着我们已经习得的文化模型。
哈奇论证道：对于一个中产阶级的英国男子，所谓“举止自然一点”就是按一种独特的文化风格来行动，而模仿这种风格的美国人或澳大利亚人则会被人们认为是怪诞可笑的。
（2）虽然许多文化成分处于意识知觉的水平以下，但它们仍然决定着个体的思想和行为，语言就是一个例子。
作为一种文化的支系统，语言决定着听说双方的理解和表达，至于俚语、谚语、箴语等，则更反映了特定的文化背景。
所有的人都使用语言规则的复杂系统，例如语音学的规则和语法规则。
但是听的人和说的人一般都不能说出这些规则的内容，只是模糊地知道这些规则存在着。
文化的其他领域也存在同样的情况。
例如，社会成员虽然使用着大量关于自然、道德价值、财产所有制等抽象的概念，但却不能完整地说出它们的具体内容。
（3）文化模式既构造了思想，也构造感知。
例如，颜色的光谱是一种色彩有的连续层次，但是文化习惯却把它分割成相互区别的片断。
哈奇论证道：英国人在蓝和绿之间作出了区分，也就是说，在光谱的某一点上，习惯造成了一种范畴的区别。
照在这一边的色彩被认为是蓝色，照在另一边的色彩则被认为是绿色。
不同的语言在光谱的不同地方区分了各种颜色，而颜色的这种方式的范畴化影响到对真实世界的感知：比如，虹是颜色的逐渐变化，但它被想象成一系列不同的光带。
同时，价值也影响了思想和感知。
例如，人们不可能以纯粹中立的态度来感知一个景观，因为在其上反映了价值观。
正如哈奇所指出的：“西方人对于一片原始森林的映象与对于一个由于工业开发而损蚀了的山坡的看法是很不相同的，这种不同部分地出地审美价值的的不同”。
B.纽戈登和G .O .哈格斯太德于1976年提出“社会时钟”的概念，也阐述了文化在决定行为方面的重要性。
在人们生活的现实中，现行的文化结构不仅判定了某一具体行为的可取与否，而且还规定了该行为应被采取的时期，并将这一规定加诸于个体身上。
“由此，人生的整个年龄蹁就经由我们所生活其中的文化，按照它自行拟定的表而被划分为几个时期”。
生命的历程必须依照这份时间表所预先制定的、无论对于谁都千篇一律的计划，以特定的速度不紧不慢地向前推地。
不管是孩提时期、成人阶段还是老年阶段，文化通常根据一个人的年龄和行为是否与文化所提供的社会时钟相结合拍来决定究竟是给予还是取消对他的奖励和机会。
然面，纽戈登和哈格斯太德认为，所有这一切并非那么顺利简便，因为社会时钟的指示并不永远那般清晰明确。
一理人们的理解出现了偏差，其行为未能与社会时钟的指针保持同步，或者超前或者落后，文化就会毫不留情地对之作出反应，迫使个体回到其应遵循的惯性轨道，否则，个体就将面临深重的压力和冲突，承受为环境所摒弃、孤立无援等等产生的叛逆感和危机感。
然而，这并不等于说，个体能够做到毫无困难、心甘情愿地接受文化模式的植入。
就儿童来说，当他们接触到文化的种种规则，面对那些颇具强制性的期待时，他们本能地觉察到这些规则和期待背后的限制，挫折感由此产生，反感和对抗也时有发生。
正如R. K.默顿所说：“个体同他的生存境界，特别是那种高高在上而又无所不在的权力体制的冲突，反映了其他倍受文化系统的管束和制约的状态中趋于觉醒，结果转向激烈的斗争方式，以发泄内心的不满情绪。
”从个体成长的角度来看，儿童从小就会自发地为独立自主的地位和自我表现的机会而奋斗。
这样的奋斗自然会导致现存文化代表的冲突。
这些代表中最重要的是他们的父母，特别是母亲。
对年幼儿童来说，这类冲突常常以孩子的屈服为结局，特别在富有凝聚力且关系稳固的家庭里更是如此。
从这类家庭中成长起来的儿童，大部分由于亲子之间深重的感情纽带和相互依赖所产生的心理满足，往往十分迁就父母的教导和期望，以致不由自主地趋向于接受父母所拥护的文化规范。
在文化植入那历时漫长的过程中，儿童将名目繁多、显性或隐性的各类文化指令逐一吸收，使之内化，从而把文化的角度视为有价值的行为方式转变为自身人格的一部分。
与文化规则发生冲突在青春期的人群中尤为普遍。
这一年龄层次的个体比以往任何时期都更加向往着独立和自由，而现实的社会地位却又使他们不得不暂时克制这一欲望。
文化时刻驱使着这些年轻人适应它的准则，以及使年龄与行为相联系的规范。
有时候，文化告诉青年他们尚未长大到足以拥有某些特权的年龄；而另一些时候，他们又被认为已经长大成人了。
种种误解由此而生，加剧了个体与文化的尖锐抵触。
当青年的反抗趋于激烈，形成一种运动时，文化也可能作出一定程度的妥协，对原先的规范作某些修正，或者改头换面成新的形式继续维护着对个体存在的控制。
按文化决定论的本意，在现实生活中我们很难对自己的生活历程作出独立的选择。
“人是文化的动物”人与动物虽然生活在同一个物理世界中，但人的生活世界却完全不同于动物的自然世界。
究其原因，就在于人类拥有文化，E .卡西尔在1944年出版的《人论》一书中指出：“人的本质永远处在制作之中，它只存在于人不断创造文化的辛勤劳作之中。
”于是，文化决定论几乎根本否定了个性自由，不允许作出异于文化所提示的行为实验。
由此推论，基于基因的缘故所造成的个体差异也不可能获得充分的表现。
正如哈奇所指出的那样，现代文化概念的一个重要含义是，人种并不能为社会中的差异提供一个适当的解释。
文化的变异与人种无关，所有的人种的成员需要适合于他们的特定的文化模式。
文化优越性的概念本身与现代的文化概念不相吻合，现代文化概念包含着一定的文化相对论。
鉴此，许多学者一方面对文化决定论中有关文化力量的阐释给予足够肯定，另一方面他们也指出隆理因素在决定人的发展过程中的巨大作用。
J .皮亚杰在其发生认识论中采取了这样的观点，即发展的阶段是以成熟的因素为基础的。
此外，有些学者也明确指出，文化决定论关于个体淹没在其身处文化氛围而被迫接受被动处境的观点不能令人信服。
如果从这种论断出发，则必须演绎出个体与文化的截然对立，从而将人类通过发牢固主体精神而创造、积累文明成就的历史过程置于抽象化的地位，人失去对自身实践的主导和控制作用，不知不觉地变在了自己所从事的创造性活动之产品的傀儡和附庸。
文化决定论的这种逻辑后承是难以令人接受的我族中心主义是以我族世界观为标准，评价另一个文化体系的逻辑及习惯，甚至将对方贬为「次等」文化中心这个词应是ethnocetrism，虽然ehtnocentrism字面上看是“民族中心主义”，但其实可以赋予更广泛的定义。
在Adorno et al的经典《The Authoritarian Personality》中，便曾给本词赋予最广泛的涵义。
它指的是任何社会群体的成员们对外部群体的偏见态度和敌对心理。
具有文化中心主义的人的特点、倾向是将人类社会划分成各种各样的群体，而他本人认同其中的一个或数个群体，同时将其他的群体视为“对立认同”(contra-identities)。
Ethnocentrism应该是研究社会群体与群体之间的关系的。
成员在心理上认同于他们所属的社会群体，同一群体有近似的社会特征，如价值观念、态度、习俗、传统、生活方式等。
文化中心主义因此有以下特点:* 成员对所属群体拥有的是一种心理认同* 具有对外型* 僵化的、严格的内部群体和外部群体区分（眼中是黑白两分，你我对立的世界）；* 定势思维；成见、偏见；* 对 外部群体 是往往有消极偏见和敌对态度；* 对 内部群体\\\/本群体 则有积极偏见;* 对内部群体认同、屈从;* 对群体交互关系等级主义的、权威主义的态度文化中心主义者可能是这样的：一般而言，外部群体和本群体的相似特征越多，在等级序列中的地位也越高。
外部群体和本群体的差异越大，偏见也越强烈。
求初二英语作文8篇、80字左右、O(∩_∩)O谢谢
1.its指Europe‘s，their指peoples'，这里peoples用的是复数，表示民族，所以national identities可以翻译成民族认同感。
2.fact 是”the television business is not an easy world to survive in“的同位语。
前文的例子说明了电视行业不好混，这个事实同样也被后文的统计数据所支持。
3.which部分是different cultures and traditions的定语，因为go没有用单三形式，which指的只能是这个复数的部分，定语从句不能用what开头。
that部分是choice的同位语没错。
其他问题没看懂。
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